Construction Laborers

 

Construction Laborer

Standard Occupational Classification 47-2061

I happened to be driving in Ohio in a northwesterly direction on Route 250 just coming up on Norwalk when I passed the sign below for a construction company wanting to hire laborers for $34.00 and hour, an amount that translates into an annual salary of $70,720 a year assuming a forty hour week and two weeks’ vacation.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) defines an occupation, construction laborer, as one of its standard occupations in its Standard Occupational Classifications (SOC) Manual. Construction laborer, a.k.a. 47-2061, had nationwide employment of 1,096,780 in 2025, the biggest construction occupation of 61 construction and extraction occupations. The SOC defines it as a job that “perform tasks involving physical labor at the construction site. May operate hand and power tools of all types: air hammers, earth tampers, cement mixers . . . May clean and prepare sites, dig trenches, brace excavations, erect scaffolding, and clean up rubble . . .”

BLS reports an increase of 209,200 employed as construction laborers from 2015 to 2025 but a smaller increase of 162,780 from 2005 to 2025. The median national wage for construction laborers in 2025 was $22.66 an hour, up from $12.22 in 2005 and $15.34 in 2015. The annual inflation rate from 2015 to 2025 was 3.11 percent, but the annual percentage increase in the median wage was 3.97 percent, assuring an increase in buying power.

The Ohio median wage for construction laborers in 2025 was $26.96, up from $15.51 in 2005 and $17.66 in 2015. The annual percentage increase in the median wage was 4.32 percent, well above the 3.11 inflation rate. BLS reports the 90^th percentile wage for construction laborers as $37.54 an hour; 90th percentile wage in Ohio is $38.04 an hour. A $34.00 assures at least 10 percent of the 1,096,780 construction laborers, or 109,678, make more than $34.00 an hour, but nothing assures applicants will get full time work; the annual wage may not be as much as it looks.

The $34.00 an hour wage for a job doing physical labor that requires no formal educational credential of any kind, not even a high school degree, suggests a company hoping to draw applicants from other types of lower paid, part time work. For a construction job doing day long physical labor suggests a job for younger applicants, but BLS reports population growth of those 16 to 34 years old has slowed to a crawl suggesting a need to add to the wage offer to get what they need. The Trump administration shutting down immigration and deporting immigrants confirms another source of the higher wage. For the savvy teen finishing high school it’s an entry level job with a path to a skilled trade.

Jobs as Chefs

Chefs and Head Cooks

Standard Occupational Classification #35-1011 Chefs and Head Cooks

SOC Definition - Direct the preparation, seasoning, and cooking of salads, soups, fish, meats, vegetables, desserts, or other foods. May plan and price menu items, order supplies, and keep records and accounts. May participate in cooking. Also known as: Executive Chef; Pastry Chef; Sous Chef

Chefs and head cooks are classified as food preparation and serving related occupations with the majority working in the accommodations and food services industry. For chefs and head cooks 45.1 percent work in full service restaurants, another 7 percent at limited service eating places like cafeterias, grills and buffets, snack and non-alcoholic beverage bars, 10.6 percent in accommodations including traveler accommodations, casino hotels, RV parks and recreational camps, and 6.0 in the amusement, gambling and recreation industry. Education employs 1.5 percent and hospitals about .9 percent and private households 4.9 percent as self-employed chefs.

National employment as chefs and head cooks was 129,370 in 2015. Jobs are up since 2000 when jobs were 122,860. The annual average job increase equals 434 per year since 2000 at a growth rate of .34 percent. The Bureau of Labor Statistics is forecasting job growth for chefs and head cooks of 1,130 per year through 2024 at a growth rate of .85 percent a year.

Job openings make a better measure of new hiring than job growth. Job openings are job growth and the number of net replacements. Net replacements are people who permanently leave an occupation for another occupation or retirement and must be replaced before there can be job growth. Job openings for chefs and head cooks are forecast to be 3,000 a year through 2024.

The recently updated BLS Education and Training Classification assignments list high school diploma or equivalent skills as necessary for entry into jobs as chefs and head cooks. However, percentages from survey data are published for chefs and head cooks showing an educational distribution where 29.2 percent have a high school degree, 17.6 percent have less than a high school degree, 22.5 percent some college, but no degree, 16.9 percent have an associates degree, 12.3 percent have BA degrees, and 1.6 percent have an advanced degree. Five years of experience in a related occupation is considered necessary to a chef or head cook but on-the-job training should not be necessary for new hires.

The National Center for Education Statistics reports degree data for America’s colleges and universities. There were 1,138 BA degrees granted in personal and culinary arts in 7 programs in June 2012, the last year of complete degree data. These include baking and pastry arts-baker-pastry chef , culinary arts-chef training, restaurant, culinary, and catering management, and meat cutting-meat cutter. Degrees are up from 2006 when 736 finished similar degrees.

The basic wage data from the BLS occupational employment survey includes a wage distribution. Averages are not used much in wage data. A few high wages pull up the average and make it unrepresentative. Instead a distribution range of wages is published with the 10th, 25th, median, 75th, and 90th percentiles of wages. A 10th percentile wage means 10 percent working in this job have wages equal to or less than the 10th percentile wage and so on. Annual wages are converted to hourly wages by dividing annual wages by 2080

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for chefs and head cooks is reported as $23,150 in 2015. The 25th percentile wage equals $30,840. The median wage is $41,500, the 75th percentile wage equals $57,110 and the 90th percentile wage is $74,170.

The wages of chefs and head cooks have kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $34,670 in 2015, the chefs and head cooks wage would need to be $40,408.09. In stead it was $41,500, a 2.70 percent increase in the real wage for those 9 years.

Some employers pay a salary to their chef employees in lieu of an hourly wage in order to avoid paying overtime at time and a half. For an employer to pay a salary and be exempt from overtime pay the employee must be paid at least $23,660 a year, or $455 a week, and meet the definition of their work defined in the regulations of the Fair Labor Standards Act as amended. The regulations have always included managerial, professional and educational occupations.

When the Fair Labor Standards Act regulations were revised in 2004 by the Bush administration a new list of specific occupations was included as exempt. Chef was on the list. I have given the regulations that define the work of a chef that an employer needs to meet to pay a salary and be exempt from overtime pay if they pay at least $23,660 a year.

Overtime exemption defined for Chefs---Chefs, such as executive chefs and sous chefs, who have attained a four-year specialized academic degree in a culinary arts program, generally meet the duties requirements for the learned professional exemption. The learned professional exemption is not available to cooks who perform predominantly routine mental, manual, mechanical or physical work.

It is common for employers to title and define someone’s employment to fit the overtime exemption definitions, but it can be exploitive, sometimes bluntly so. If a salary is set close to the 10th percentile wage of $23,150 or less it is a real abuse, but less so the closer pay gets to the median of $41,500.

The Obama Administration has raised minimum salary required for exemption from overtime from $23,660 to $47,467. If a chef’s salary is below $47,467 then his employer will have to pay time and half for overtime beginning December 1, 2016 to be in compliance with the Fair Labor Standards Act. The only way to avoid paying overtime by paying a salary will be to pay an annual salary more than $47,467.

Jobs in Public Relations

Public Relations Managers and Public Relations Specialists

Standard Occupational Classification #11-2031 Public Relations Managers
Standard Occupational Classification #27-3031 Public Relations Specialists

SOC Definition for Public Relations Managers #11-2031 -- Plan and direct public relations programs designed to create and maintain a favorable public image for employer or client; or if engaged in fundraising, plan and direct activities to solicit and maintain funds for special projects and nonprofit organizations. Also known as: Fundraising Director, Public Information Director, Publicity Director

SOC Definition for Public Relations Specialists #27-3031 – Engage in promoting or creating good will for individuals, groups, or organizations by writing or selecting favorable publicity material and releasing it through various communications media. May prepare and arrange displays, and make speeches. Also known as Account Executive, Communications Director, Communications Specialist, Corporate Communications Specialist, Media Relations Specialist, Public Affairs Specialist, Public Information Officer, Public Information Specialist, Public Relations Coordinator or Specialist

Respond to requests for information from the media. Write press releases or other media communications to promote clients and an organization's accomplishments, agenda, or environmental responsibility. Establish or maintain cooperative relationships with representatives of community, consumer, employee, or interest groups. Coach client representatives in effective communication with the public or with employees. Update and maintain content posted on the Web. Prepare or edit organizational publications, such as employee newsletters or stockholders' reports, for internal or external audiences. Coordinate public responses to management incidents or conflicts.


Public Relations Managers are classified as managerial occupations with 24.2 percent working in the non-profit Religious, Grantmaking, Civic, Professional, and Similar Organizations, 16.6 percent working in Junior Colleges, Colleges, Universities, and Professional Schools, 8.2 percent working in Advertising, Public Relations, and Related Services, 9.3 percent working in Management of Companies and Enterprises and a scattering of small percents in many industries.

For Public Relations Specialist are classified as Arts, design, entertainment, sports, and media occupations with 21.6 percent working in Religious, Grantmaking, Civic, Professional, and Similar Organizations, 9.5 percent working in Junior Colleges, Colleges, Universities, and Professional Schools, 14.9 percent working in Advertising, Public Relations, and Related Services, 7.3 percent working in hospitals and social assistance, 6.9 percent working in state and local government, excluding education and hospitals and a scattering of small percents in many industries.

National employment as Public Relations Managers was 60,380 in 2015. Jobs are down since 2000 when jobs were 68,000. The annual average job decrease equals 508 per year since 2000 at a growth rate of -.79 percent. The Bureau of Labor Statistics is forecasting job growth for Public Relations Managers at 470 per year through 2024 at a growth rate of .69 percent a year.

National employment as Public Relations Specialists was 218,910 in 2015. Jobs are up since 2000 when jobs were 128,570. The annual average job increase equals 6,023 per year since 2000 at a growth rate of 3.61 percent. The Bureau of Labor Statistics is forecasting job growth for Public Relations Specialists at 14,900 per year through 2024 at a growth rate of .60 percent a year.


Job openings make a better measure of new hiring than job growth. Job openings are job growth and the number of net replacements. Net replacements are people who permanently leave an occupation for another occupation or retirement and must be replaced before there can be job growth. Job openings for Public Relations Managers are forecast to be 610 a year through 2024.

Job openings make a better measure of new hiring than job growth. Job openings are job growth and the number of net replacements. Net replacements are people who permanently leave an occupation for another occupation or retirement and must be replaced before there can be job growth. Job openings for Public Relations Specialists are forecast to be 2,620 a year through 2024.

The recently updated BLS Education and Training Classification assignments lists BA degree skills as necessary for entry into jobs as Public Relations Manager. However, percentages from survey data are published for Public Relations Managers showing an educational distribution where 49.2 percent have a BA degree, 23.6 percent have advanced degrees, 13.9 percent some college, but no degree, and almost 5.6 percent have an associate’s degree. High school skills were sufficient for 7.6 percent who work here and .6 percent have less than a high school degree. Previous experience is considered unnecessary, but moderate on-the-job training is expected to be necessary for new hires.

BA degree skills are necessary for Public Relations Specialists. Percentages from survey data are published for Public Relations Specialists showing an educational distribution where 56.2 percent have a BA degree, 22.4 percent have advanced degrees, 11.2 percent some college, but no degree, and almost 4.3 percent have an associate’s degree. High school skills were sufficient for 5.4 percent who work here and .6 percent have less than a high school degree. Previous experience is considered unnecessary, but moderate on-the-job training is expected to be necessary for new hires.


The National Center for Education Statistics reports degree data for America’s colleges and universities that can be compared with job growth and openings. Relevant BA degree programs include Public relations/image management, advertising, political communication, health communication, public relations, advertising and applied communications specialties. There were 11,126 BA degrees granted in the 5 programs in public relations, advertising and applied communications in June 2013, the last year of complete degree data. These are up slightly from June 2011 when they were 10,027 and June 2012 when they were 9,948. There were also 1,004 MA degrees granted and 11 Ph.D degrees granted in June 2013. The ratio of relevant BA degree to openings equals 3.44, or 11,126/(610+2620), assuring more than three qualified candidates to fill job openings.

The basic wage data from the BLS occupational employment survey includes a wage distribution. Averages are not used much in wage data. A few high wages pull up the average and make it unrepresentative. Instead a distribution range of wages is published with the 10th, 25th, median, 75th, and 90th percentiles of wages. A 10th percentile wage means 10 percent working in this job have wages equal to or less than the 10th percentile wage and so on. Annual wages are converted to hourly wages by dividing annual wages by 2080

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for Public Relations Manager is reported as $56,890 in 2015. The 25th percentile wage equals $76,000. The median wage is $104,140, the 75th percentile wage equals $147,590 and the 90th percentile wage is $187,200.

The wages of Public Relations Manager have kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2008 median wage of $89,430 in 2015, the Public Relations Manager wage would need to be $98,448.40. In stead it was $104,140, a 5.78 percent increase in the real wage for those eight years.

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for Public Relations Specialist is reported as $31,690 in 2015. The 25th percentile wage equals $41,520. The median wage is $56,770, the 75th percentile wage equals $78,340 and the 90th percentile wage is $110,080.

The wages of Public Relations Specialist have kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2008 median wage of $51,280 in 2015, the Public Relations Specialist wage would need to be $56,451.23. In stead it was $56,770, a 0.56 percent increase in the real wage for those eight years.

Jobs for Epidemiologists

Occupation

Standard Occupational Classification #19-1041 Epidemiologists

SOC Definition- Epidemiologists #19-1041 - Investigate and describe the determinants and distribution of disease, disability, and other health outcomes and develop the means for prevention and control.

Epidemiology studies the causes, and effects of disease in defined populations to identify trends that can improve public health by identifying the risks of disease. Epidemiologists work in the field to discover the causes of disease or injury, who is at risk, and how to lower or end the incidence of known dangers and diseases. They monitor demographic and social trends and account for a variety of hereditary, behavioral, environmental and health care variables that require interdisciplinary work in statistics, biology including biochemistry and molecular biology and clinical research practices.

Epidemiologists are classified as life science occupations in the Bureau of Labor Statistics classifications with the majority working in the state and local government. For Epidemiologists 54 percent work in government, 17.8 percent in health care, mostly at hospitals, 11.8 percent in scientific research and management consulting, 9 percent in colleges and universities doing teaching and research and almost five percent in the pharmaceutical industry as part of manufacturing.

National employment as Epidemiologists was 5,420 in 2014. Jobs are up since 2000 when jobs were 2,480. The average annual job increase equals 214 per year since 2000 at a growth rate of 5.74 percent. The Bureau of Labor Statistics is forecasting job growth for Epidemiologists at 50 per year through 2022 with a growth rate of 1.12 percent a year.

Job openings make a better measure of new hiring than job growth. Job openings are job growth and the number of net replacements. Net replacements are people who permanently leave an occupation for another occupation or retirement and must be replaced before there can be job growth. Job openings for Epidemiologists are forecast to be 160 a year through 2022.

The recently updated BLS Education and Training Classification assignments lists MA degree skills as necessary for entry into jobs as Epidemiologists. However, percentages from survey data are published for Epidemiologists showing an educational distribution where 5.8 percent have a BA degree, 92.9 percent have advanced degrees with 64 percent holding doctorates, only .6 percent have some college, but no degree, and .4 percent have an associate’s degree. Less than one percent have high school skills only. Previous experience is considered unnecessary, but moderate on-the-job training is expected to be necessary for new hires.

The National Center for Education Statistics reports degree data for America’s colleges and universities that can be compared with job growth and openings. There was 1 BA degrees granted in 1 program in June 2012, the last year of complete degree data. There were also 881 MA degrees granted in 1 program in Biology and Biomedical Sciences and 268 PhD degrees. However, many work in epidemiology with doctorates in public health, clinical practice or with MD degrees. Degrees are up in 2012 from previous years. The ratio of relevant BA degree to openings equals 7.18, or 1,149/160, assuring 7 qualified candidates to fill each job opening.

The basic wage data from the BLS occupational employment survey includes a wage distribution. Averages are not used much in wage data. A few high wages pull up the average and make it unrepresentative. Instead a distribution range of wages is published with the 10th, 25th, median, 75th, and 90th percentiles of wages. A 10th percentile wage means 10 percent working in this job have wages equal to or less than the 10th percentile wage and so on. Annual wages are converted to hourly wages by dividing annual wages by 2080

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for Epidemiologists is reported as $43,530 in 2014. The 25th percentile wage equals $53,070. The median wage is $067,420, the 75th percentile wage equals $000 and the 90th percentile wage is $112,360.

The wages of epidemiologists have kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $56,670 in 2014, the epidemiologist’s wage would need to be $66,546.67. Instead it was $67,420, a 1.31 percent increase in the real wage for those eight years.

Jobs for Chemists

Chemists

Standard Occupational Classification #19-2031 Chemist

SOC definition Chemist #19-2031 - Conduct qualitative and quantitative chemical analyses or chemical experiments in laboratories for quality or process control or to develop new products or knowledge. Chemists are also known as inorganic chemists or chemical analyst. A Chemist is a separate occupation from other occupations that use chemistry skills such as Chemical engineer, #17-2041 and biochemists, #19-1021.

Chemists are classified as physical science occupations with the largest share working in the manufacturing industry. Almost all manufacturing firms hire a few chemists and 37.9 percent of those employed as chemists work in manufacturing. The Chemical manufacturing industry employs the highest share of chemists, at 31.7 percent, leaving only 6.2 percent of chemists working in other manufacturing industries. Over half of chemists working in chemical manufacturing work for pharmaceutical firms or firms manufacturing medicine, 18.1 percent actually.

Just over 12.6 percent of chemists work for engineering firms, mostly in testing labs and another 18.9 percent are employed in scientific research and development. About 5 percent teach, mostly at colleges and universities. The federal, state, and local government employs 13.4 percent. The remainder are quite scattered with nearly one percent working in waste management and remediation.

National employment as chemists was 85,970 in 2014. Jobs are up since 2000 when 82,320 worked as chemists. The annual average job increase equals 231 per year since 2000 at a growth rate of .31 percent. The Bureau of Labor Statistics is forecasting job growth for chemists at 560 per year through 2022 at a growth rate of .55 percent a year.

Job openings make a better measure of new hiring than job growth. Job openings are job growth and the number of net replacements. Net replacements are people who permanently leave an occupation for another occupation or retirement and must be replaced before there can be job growth. Job openings for chemists are forecast to be 2,780 a year through 2022.

The recently updated Bureau of Labor Statistics Education and Training Classification assignments lists BA degree skills as necessary for entry into jobs as Chemists. However, percentages from survey data are published for chemists showing an educational distribution where 52.5 percent have a BA degree, 40 percent have advanced degrees, 4.2 percent some college, but no degree. Almost 3 percent have an associate’s degree. High school skills were sufficient for .1 percent that work here and .1 percent have less than a high school degree. Previous experience and on-the-job training are considered unnecessary for entry.

The National Center for Education Statistics reports degree data for America’s colleges and universities that can be compared with job growth and openings. There were 13,416 BA degrees granted in 7 programs in June 2012, the last year of complete degree data. There were also 2,434 MA degrees granted in 7 programs in chemistry and 2,532 Ph.D. degrees granted in Chemistry. BA degrees are up by 790 from the previous year. The ratio of relevant BA degrees to openings equals 4.82, or 13,416/2,780, assuring plenty of qualified candidates to fill job openings.

The basic wage data from the BLS occupational employment survey includes a wage distribution. Averages are not used much in wage data. A few high wages pull up the average and make it unrepresentative. Instead a distribution range of wages is published with the 10th, 25th, median, 75th, and 90th percentiles of wages. A 10th percentile wage means 10 percent working in this occupation have wages equal to or less than the 10th percentile wage and so on. Annual wages are converted to hourly wages by dividing annual wages by 2080

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for chemists is reported as $41,560 in 2014. The 25th percentile wage equals $53,420. The median wage is $73,480, the 75th percentile wage equals $99,360 and the 90th percentile wage is $126,220.

The wages of chemists have kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $59,870 in 2014, the chemist wage would need to be $70,304.49. In stead it was $73,480, a 4.52 percent increase in the real wage for those eight years.

Jobs for Attorneys

Lawyer

Standard Occupational Classification #23-1011 Lawyers

SOC Definition -- Lawyers #23-1011 Represent clients in criminal and civil litigation and other legal proceedings, draw up legal documents, and manage or advise clients on legal transactions. May specialize in a single area or may practice broadly in many areas of law. Examples of common names in use include Attorney; Real Estate Attorney; Corporate Counsel; Public Defender.

There is a famous line in Shakespeare. "First thing, kill all the lawyers." We have to be glad no one is talking that way now but not everyone feels happy with the modern day legal services industry. People would appreciate lawyers more if they would think about the different legal specialties: bankruptcy, divorce, crime, personal injury, medical malpractice. As we can see lawyers spend their professional life in the middle of somebody else’s argument. Bickering, wrangling, hectoring fill their days. And who ever tries to shore up their morale? Even the winning plaintiffs can be hostile. “I should’a got a better settlement.”

Arguments and other legal business employed 603,300 as lawyers in 2014. Jobs are up since 2000 when jobs were 489,500. The annual average job increase equals 8,127 per year since 2000 at a growth rate of 1.50 percent. The Bureau of Labor Statistics is forecasting job growth for lawyers at 7,480 per year through 2022 with a growth rate of 1.19 percent a year.

It is important to know that only lawyers working as lawyers in jobs at establishments are counted in the totals above. Lawyers can maintain bar membership, but if they work as managers or in another occupation their job will not be counted as a lawyer. A 51 percent majority of employed attorneys work in the Legal Services industry, another 18 percent work in government with small percents scattered in many other industries working as in-house counsel.

The totals above do not include lawyers working as self-employed attorneys in their own business. They have to be counted separately because the Bureau of Labor Statistics checks all their employment numbers with the unemployment insurance rolls. The self employed with no payroll do not have to be in the unemployment insurance system so they cannot be checked and counted in establishment employment, but have to be counted separately. The self-employed census estimate is 166,218, which brings the total of lawyers doing lawyer’s work to 769,528.

Job openings for establishment jobs give a better measure of new hiring than job growth. Job openings are job growth and the number of net replacements. Net replacements count people who permanently leave an occupation for another occupation or retirement and must be replaced before there can be job growth. Job openings for lawyers are forecast to be 19.6 thousand a year through 2022.



The basic wage data from the BLS occupational employment survey includes a wage distribution. Averages are not used much in wage data. A few high wages pull up the average and make it unrepresentative. Instead a distribution range of wages is published with the 10th, 25th, median, 75th, and 90th percentiles of wages. A 10th percentile wage means 10 percent working in this job have wages equal to or less than the 10th percentile wage and so on. Annual wages are converted to hourly wages by dividing annual wages by 2080 hours.

The entry wage for lawyers in the national market equals the 10th percentile reported as $55,400 in 2014. The 25th percentile wage equals $75,630. The median wage is $114,970, the 75th percentile wage equals $172,540 and the 90th percentile wage is $187,200.

The wages of lawyers have not kept up with inflation during the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $102,470 in 2014, the lawyers wage would need to be $120,329.10. In stead it was $114,970, a 4.45 percent decrease in the real wage for those six years.

The wages of lawyers have not kept up with inflation from 2013 to 2014. For example, to have the buying power of the 2013 median wage of $114,300.00 in 2014, the lawyers wage would need to be $116,154.20. In stead it was $114,970.00, a 1.02 percent decrease in the real wage for those six years.

Back in Abe Lincoln’s day, Abe and other aspiring lawyers studied the law working in law offices and learned through the mentoring system. Now we have three years of postgraduate law school and the summer bar exam. This system helps keep people out of the work force a full seven years and generates jobs in law schools.

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) reports degree data for law schools as well as the American Bar Association (ABA). Both report recent law school degree totals for 205 accredited law schools to be in the 46 thousand range. The ABA reports 43,979 degrees for 2011, 46,364 for 2012 and 46,776 for 2013. Degrees can be compared with job growth and openings. With 46,776 law degrees in June 2013, the last year of complete degree data, the ratio of relevant JD degrees to openings equals 2.39, or 46,776/19,600, assuring a large surplus of qualified candidates to fill job openings.

The ABA also reports current tuition for accredited law schools, which tends to be in the $30,000 range, but varies widely. Some tuition is under $1,000 such as the University of Dayton with reported tuition of $910, while at prestigious Yale tuition rings in at $43,750. High law school tuition has the potential to make law school quite profitable, but colleges including law schools do negotiate reductions for especially promising students.

The difference in tuition puts significant but different financial pressures on graduates. Investing three years worth of $43,750 tuition at 4 percent a year would generate $276,665.80 after 20 years. Current interest rates are less than 4 percent but long term stock market returns are higher so 4 percent represents a defensible middle of the road return. It will be necessary to earn $19,574.57 a year more in wages to justify the tuition investment, again over 20 years and discounting the additional wages at 4 percent interest and annual compounding. Thanks go to Excel spreadsheet functions for these calculations.

Graduates of the high priced and well known schools like Yale and Stanford can find jobs in the largest law firms at salaries of $140,000 to $160,000, which is enough to make the three year investment in tuition payoff quite well. Large law firms pay better than smaller law firms, typically at least double small ones. Recent data show 21 law firms have more than 1,000 attorneys and a couple have over three thousand, but there are typically no more than 300 United States law firms with more than a hundred attorneys.

While the newly hired associates at large law firms can expect $140 to $160 thousand salaries, their numbers are small compared to the number of graduates each year. Large law firms can be expected to employ 60-65 thousand associate attorneys, the number varies some year to year, but that represents no more than 10 percent of jobs for associate attorneys.

The 10th percentile wage of $55,400 should be thought of as a realistic entry wage for new law school graduates. The lower entry salaries for most of the graduates makes the law school payoff more uncertain. A safe calculation should compare three years of law school tuition with any increase in salary based on a wage of $45 to $65 thousand. As of 2014 it is quite possible that law school can be a bad investment.

To be a lawyer representing clients before a court requires admission to a state bar association and the payment of bar dues. Some lawyers decide to practice law in several states but that requires passing more bar exams and paying bar dues to multiple state bar associations. Bar association dues are like the union dues paid by machinists or electricians who have to demonstrate their skills to belong to the International Association of Machinists, or International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers.

People in associations with common skills, like bar associations for lawyers, have successfully cultivated a different image for themselves than the public perception of people in unions like machinists or electrical workers. Machinists and electrical workers join a union. Lawyers support a prestigious professional association, but lawyers, machinists, and electrical workers have an identical set of needs and goals.

Each has a need to assure that people who enter the practice of law, machinist, or electrician have a common set of essential skills. Imposters are bad for practitioners and consumers alike, but the time and expense learning the skills of a lawyer, machinist, or electrician has to be covered in higher wages. Partly higher wages give the incentive to learn new skills, but incentive alone is not enough. That is because not everybody can afford the time and expense it takes to learn a skilled profession unless they can pay for the investment later with higher wages.

The median wages reported for lawyers are among the highest median wages in the Occupational Employment Survey. Physicians are generally higher, and a few other occupations like chief executive and selected actors and entertainers. Trouble is lawyers who are already lawyers have two reasons to limit entry. In addition to maintaining high skills those already qualified and licensed have the incentive to prevent too many new entrants from lowering wages.

In America, law courts do not allow partial license that would let someone represent others in divorce law, or real estate law, or other legal specialty. The requirement for a three year law degree, the bar exam and bar dues as prerequisite to represent anybody amounts to a one size fits all lawyer that limits the number of lawyer jobs. Comparison with court practices in other countries might show that America’s restrictions are not necessary, except to limit entry and keep earnings higher for lawyers.

Law firms usually charge clients by the hour with charges of $300 an hour or more, which limits legal access to the well-to-do and corporations and government, but it also limits jobs. The Legal Services industry employment in all its occupations has remained at about 1.1 million since about 2002 with a 20 year record of slow growth. Actually it is .72 percent a year since 1990; .36 percent a year since 2000; -.75 percent for last year 2013 to 2014; the worst record among professional service sub sectors. America needs jobs, more legal services and a broader approach legal representation could help.

Jobs in Technical Writing

Standard Occupational Classification #27-3042 Technical Writers

SOC definition Technical Writers #27-3042 -- Write technical materials, such as equipment manuals, appendices, or operating and maintenance instruction manuals. Many assist in layout work. Examples of other common names are documentation writer, assembly instructions writer, specifications writer

Technical writing work is classified as a media and communications occupation with the largest share working in the professional and technical services industries, almost 36 percent of the jobs. Among the professional services computer systems design and related services has 18 percent of the jobs, but other professional services like architectural and engineering services, management and scientific and technical consulting services also employ a large number.

Another 16 percent are in various manufacturing industries that need owner’s manuals and repair manuals to go with manufactured products. Computer and electronic product manufacturing has 6 percent of these jobs alone with small percents scattered in many manufacturing industries.

The publishing industry employs a little over 8 percent with 5 percent working for software publishers. Government employs 3.4 percent; 2.5 percent in the federal government. The rest are scattered as small percents in many industries because finance, health care and so many industries need to explain technical material. A little over 9 percent are self employed.

National employment as technical writers was 47,300 in 2013. Jobs are down from 50,700 since 2000 in a modest decline. Annual average job decline was 262 per year since 2000 at a growth rate of -.53 percent. The Bureau of Labor Statistics is forecasting job growth for technical writers of 280 per year through 2022 with a growth rate of 2.07 percent a year.

Job openings make a better measure of new hiring than job growth. Job openings are job growth and the number of net replacements. Net replacements are people who permanently leave an occupation for another occupation or retirement and must be replaced before there can be job growth. Job openings for technical writers are forecast to be 2,260 a year through 2022.

The recently updated BLS Education and Training Classification assignments lists BA degree skills as necessary for entry into jobs as technical writers. However, percentages from survey data are published for technical writing that show an educational distribution where 47 percent have a BA degree and another 26 percent have advanced degrees. Another 21 percent have some college, but no degree, or an associate’s degree. Some specialized knowledge or experience may be satisfactory in some industries, but less than 6 percent who work as technical writers have high school or less than high school training. Previous experience of 1 to 5 years is considered important, but short term on-the-job training is expected for new hires.

Relevant BA degree programs include Professional, Technical, Business and Scientific Writing, English Language and Literature, General and also Journalism degrees that teach writing as a career. For those interested in technical writing it is wise to find a college that offers the Technical Writing specialty in that only a few actually specialize in technical writing.

There were 685 Professional, Technical, Business and Scientific Writing BA degrees for the last full year of data reported by the Department of Education. In addition, there were 363 more advanced degrees. The ratio of relevant degrees to openings equals 0.464, or 1,048/2,260, assuring a shortage of highly trained and specialized candidates to fill job openings. There were also 43,260 BA degrees in English Language and Literature, General, and 12,249 BA degrees in journalism. Even though these degrees are not as specialized to technical writing, Professional, Technical, Business and Scientific Writing degree candidates should expect other qualified candidates in the applicant pool.

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for technical writers is reported as $40,270 in 2013. The 25th percentile wage equals $51,850. The median wage is $67,900, the 75th percentile wage equals $86,340 and the 90th percentile wage is $105,760.

The wages of technical writers have kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $58,050 in 2013, the technical writers wage would need to be $67,079.11. In stead it was $67,900, a 1.22 percent increase in the real wage for those six years.

Jobs for Pharmacy

Standard Occupational Classification #29-1051 Pharmacist
Standard Occupational Classification #29-2052 Pharmacy Technician
Standard Occupational Classification #31-9095 Pharmacy Aide

SOC Definition #29-1051-Pharmacist---Dispense drugs prescribed by physicians and other health practitioners and provide information to patients about medications and their use. May advise physicians and other health practitioners on the selection, dosage, interactions, and side effects of medications. Examples of other names in common use are apothecary; druggist; industrial pharmacist

SOC Definition #29-2052-Pharmacy Technicians---Prepare medications under the direction of a pharmacist. May measure, mix, count out, label, and record amounts and dosages of medications.

SOC Definition #31-9095-Pharmacy Aides---Record drugs delivered to the pharmacy, store incoming merchandise, and inform the supervisor of stock needs. May operate cash register and accept prescriptions for filling. Examples of other names in common use are dispensary attendant; prescription clerk

Both pharmacists and pharmacy technicians are classified as health care occupations. Pharmacy aides are in health care support occupations. Pharmacists have two-thirds of their employment in retail trade, mostly at pharmacies and drug stores, but some also work in grocery stores and department stores. Another 25 percent work at hospitals and a few more at clinics and nursing homes. A small percent are scattered in industries unrelated to health care like education and employment services.

Pharmacy technicians and pharmacy aides can only work with pharmacists, but they are more closely connected to retail trade than pharmacists. Over 70 percent of pharmacy technicians and at least 85 percent of pharmacy aides work in retail with almost all the rest at hospitals. The difference suggests retail trade make more intensive use of their pharmacists while hospital pharmacists do more of their own support work.

National employment as pharmacists was 287,420 in 2013. Jobs are up from 212,660 since 2000 in a steady increase. Annual average job growth equals 5,751 per year since 2000 at a growth rate of 2.34 percent, higher than the average for all employment. National employment as pharmacy technicians was 362,690 in 2013. Jobs are up since 2000 when jobs were 190,940. The annual average job increase equals 13,212 per year since 2000 at a growth rate of 5.06 percent, more than double the national growth rate for jobs. National employment as pharmacy aides was 42,250 in 2013. Jobs are down since 2000 when jobs were 59,890. The annual average job decline equals 1,357 per year since 2000 at a growth rate of –2.65 percent.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics is forecasting job growth for pharmacists at almost the same rate as the last 13 years at 12,330 per year through 2022. Because of anticipated turnover and retirements, openings, or growth plus replacement needs, are expected to be 29,640 a year. Forecast job growth for pharmacy technicians is 7,070 a year through 2022. Anticipated turnover and retirements are expected to create 10,590 openings a year. Forecast job growth for pharmacy aides is much smaller at 480 a year through 2022. Because of anticipated turnover and retirements, openings, or growth plus replacement needs, are expected to be 1,290 a year.

Pharmacists need a doctor of pharmacy degree from a program accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy education. There are 120 accredited programs and two programs on probation listed by the Accreditation Council. It was not always this way. Earlier pharmacy programs had specialty training at the BA degree level, but these programs have been phased out. Some of those working as pharmacists were trained under the old requirements, but new pharmacists must have the Pharm. D degree. Applicants should now expect seven years of study to finish the degree.

All pharmacists are required to pass state licensing exams before they can work as pharmacists. On-the-job training is not important in that pharmacists are expected to know the work before they can apply for a job or be a pharmacist. Work experience in a related occupation might help in some ways but is not necessary for entry.
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High school degree skills are adequate for pharmacy technicians and aides, although Bureau of Labor Statistics survey data indicate over half working as pharmacy technicians have some college or a college degree. Experience in a related occupation is not necessary, but qualified candidates need some short term on-the-job training working in a pharmacy to be considered fully qualified.

The National Center for Education Statistics reports degree data for America’s colleges and universities that can be compared with job growth and openings. There were 12,943 doctor of pharmacy degrees granted in June 2012, the last year of complete degree data. They were granted as 36 percent to men and 64 percent to women.

Degrees are up in 2012 from previous years at annual growth rates around five percent, much faster than the MD degree or dentistry. The ratio of relevant BA degree to openings equals .44, or 12,943/29,640, suggesting a likely shortage of qualified candidates to fill job openings.

The basic wage data from the BLS occupational employment survey includes a wage distribution. Averages are seldom used in wage data. A few high wages pull up the average and make it unrepresentative. Instead a distribution range of wages is published with the 10th, 25th, median, 75th, and 90th percentiles of wages. A 10th percentile wage means 10 percent working in this job have wages equal to or less than the 10th percentile wage and so on. Annual wages are converted to hourly wages by dividing annual wages by 2080

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for Pharmacists is reported as $89,000 in 2013. The 25th percentile wage equals $104,100. The median wage is $119,280, the 75th percentile wage equals $136,360 and the 90th percentile wage is $147,350.

The wages of Pharmacists have kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $94,250 in 2013, the Pharmacist wage would need to be $109,221.70. In stead it was $119,280, a 9.21 percent increase in the real wage for those seven years. Other years also show an increase in real wages.

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for Pharmacy Technicians is reported as $20,040 in 2012. The 25th percentile wage equals $24,440. The median wage is $29,650, the 75th percentile wage equals $36,270 and the 90th percentile wage is $43,230.

The wages of Pharmacy Technicians have kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $25 630, in 2013, the pharmacy technician wage would need to be $29,616.50. Instead it was $29,650, a .11 percent increase in the real wage for those seven years. Other years also show increasing real wages.

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for Pharmacy Aides is reported as $17,160 in 2013. The 25th percentile wage equals $19,070. The median wage is $22,580, the 75th percentile wage equals $28,050 and the 90th percentile wage is $35,680.

The wages of Pharmacy Aides have kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $19,440, in 2013, the Pharmacy Aides wage would need to be $22,463.70. Instead it was $22,580, a .52 percent increase in the real wage for those seven years. Other years also show increasing real wages.

Jobs for Software Developers

Software Developers

Software Developers have two occupations

Standard Occupational Classification #15-1132 Software Developers, Applications
Standard Occupational Classification #15-1133 Software Developers, Systems Software

SOC Definition for #15-1132 -- Develop, create, and modify general computer applications software or specialized utility programs. Analyze user needs and develop software solutions. Design software or customize software for client use with the aim of optimizing operational efficiency. May analyze and design databases within an application area, working individually or coordinating database development as part of a team. Excludes "Computer Hardware Engineers" (17-2061).

Examples of other common names in use -- Applications Developer; Programmer Analyst; Software Designer

SOC Definition for #15-1133 -- Research, design, develop, and test operating systems-level software, compilers, and network distribution software for medical, industrial, military, communications, aerospace, business, scientific, and general computing applications. Set operational specifications and formulate and analyze software requirements. May design embedded systems software. Apply principles and techniques of computer science, engineering, and mathematical analysis.

Examples of other common names in use--Developer, Infrastructure Engineer, Network Engineer, Publishing Systems Analyst, Senior Software Engineer, Software Architect, Software Developer, Software Engineer, Systems Coordinator, Systems Engineer

National 2013 employment as Software Developers was 1,017,340, 643,830 for software developers, applications, and 373,510 for software developers, system software.
Software Developers for Applications have some jobs in nearly every sector of the economy so anyone with these skills should expect to work in every sector of the economy. Job concentrations occur in professional and business services with 45 percent of the jobs that include 35 percent of the jobs in the computer systems design and related activities industry. Publishing including software publishers has 10 percent of jobs; finance and insurance has 9 percent of jobs. Manufacturing firms employ 8.5 percent of Software Developers for Applications spread among all manufacturing sub sectors with 5 percent in computer and electronic products manufacturing.

Software Developers, System Software have job concentrations in professional and business services with 47 percent of the jobs. Computer and electronic product manufacturing has 14 percent of jobs with another 5 percent scattered in other areas of manufacturing. Publishing has 5 percent, telecommunications and data processing, hosting and related services another 5 percent, with finance and insurance also at 5 percent.

The individual growth rate of new jobs per year since 2000 varies widely for the two occupations. Software developer for applications had a steady growth of 4.25 percent a year that averaged 20.7 thousand new jobs a year, triple job growth for the economy. The Bureau of Labor Statistics is forecasting modest job growth of 14.0 thousand per year through 2022 at 2.08 percent a year

Software developers for system software had a steady increase of 2.69 percent a year that averaged 8.4 thousand new jobs a year since 2000, still rapid growth above the national average. The combined increase equals 29.1 thousand new jobs a year. The Bureau of Labor Statistics is forecasting modest job growth of 8.3 thousand per year through 2022 at 1.88 percent a year.

Job growth is not the only measure of new hiring. Job openings equal job growth and the number of net replacements. Net replacements are people who permanently leave an occupation for another occupation or retirement and must be replaced before there can be any job growth. Job openings for software developers, for applications are forecast to be 21,850 a year through 2022. Job openings for software developers, system software are forecast to be 13,470 a year through 2022.

The recently updated BLS Education and Training Classification assignment lists BA degree skills as necessary for entry into both software developers for applications and system software. Previous work experience of 1 to 5 years is listed as an entry level requirement for the system software occupation, but not for applications. On-the-job training are not important factors in hiring for either.

New BA degrees in computing are part of 10 different Computer and Information Sciences and Support Services specialties and those 10 are part of 26 degree programs in Computer and Information Sciences and Support Services. BA degrees in Computer Science programs totaled 47,384 for the year ending 2012. The latest total is up from 47,299 degrees in 2001 but also down from 59,488 in 2004. The biggest share of these degrees are general survey courses in information systems and computer science and not specifically for software development. There were also 20,917 masters degrees and 1,698 doctorates in the computer science programs. Totals for computer degree programs have remained stable for over a decade but show no sign of increasing in spite of the excellent job prospects.

The ratio of relevant BA degrees to software developer openings equals 1.34, or 47,384/35,320. However, he total of computer graduates lags behind the number of job openings for the eleven computer occupations defined in the Standard Occupational Classification that use BA degree skills. There are 99.5 thousand job openings for the eleven BA degree occupations compared to 47,384 total computer BA degree candidates. To the extent that computer degree holders can find computing jobs from a variety of degree programs, there ratio of BA relevant BA degrees to job openings is .48, indicating a shortage of computer degrees from U.S. colleges.

The entry wage for software developers for applications is reported as $55,770 in 2013, which is also the 10th percentile wage. The median wage is $92,660, and the 90th percentile wage is $143,540. The wages of software developers for applications have kept up with inflation in recent years. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $79 780, in 2013, the software developer for application wage would need to be $92,189. Instead it was $92,660, a .51 percent increase in the real wage for those seven years.

The entry wage for software developers, systems software is reported as $63,140 in 2013, which is also the 10th percentile wage. The median wage is $101,410, and the 90th percentile wage is $150,760. The wages of software developers, systems software have kept up with inflation in recent years. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $85,370, in 2013, the software developer for application wage would need to be $98,648.98. Instead it was $101,410, a 2.8 percent increase in the real wage for those seven years. The 90th percentile wage is 2.6 times the entry level wage, or 10th percentile wage, which implies there is opportunity for advancement.

Jobs for Librarians

Librarians and Library Technicians

Standard Occupational Classification #25-4021 Librarians
Standard Occupational Classification #25-4031 Library Technicians

SOC Definition - Librarians #25-4021 – Administer libraries and perform related library services. Work in a variety of settings, including public libraries, schools, colleges and universities, museums, corporations, government agencies, law firms, non-profit organizations, and healthcare providers. Tasks may include selecting, acquiring, cataloguing, classifying, circulating, and maintaining library materials; and furnishing reference, bibliographical, and readers' advisory services. May perform in-depth, strategic research, and synthesize, analyze, edit, and filter information. May set up or work with databases and information systems to catalogue and access information.
Examples of other common names in use: School Library Media Specialist; Circulation Manager

SOC Definition - Library Technicians #25-4031 -- Assist librarians by helping readers in the use of library catalogs, databases, and indexes to locate books and other materials; and by answering questions that require only brief consultation of standard reference. Compile records; sort and shelve books; remove or repair damaged books; register patrons; check materials in and out of the circulation process. Replace materials in shelving area (stacks) or files. Include bookmobile drivers who operate bookmobiles or light trucks that pull trailers to specific locations on a predetermined schedule and assist with providing services in mobile libraries. Examples of other common names in use: Assistant Librarian, Bookmobile Driver.

America employs 136.5 thousand librarians and 96 thousand library technicians. Roughly 58 percent of librarians are employed in schools and colleges, 5 percent in independent libraries and archives, 32 percent in government excluding education and another percent or two scattered at law firms, research or professional associations. Library Technicians have 37 percent employed in schools and colleges, 6 percent in independent libraries and archives, 54 percent in government excluding education and the rest scattered in other industries.

Librarians need a master’s degree in library science to be considered; library technicians need some vocational training, work experience, or associates degree training with an emphasis on computers. Both librarians and library technicians need to be able to work in schools as well as public libraries.

Jobs as librarians have slowly declined for more than a decade. Jobs for librarians declined an average 227 a year from 2000 at an annual growth rate of -.16 percent. Jobs as library technicians also have slowly declined since 2000 with an average decrease of 362 a year at an annual growth rate of -.37 percent. In spite of the recent decline the Bureau of Labor Statistics has forecasted a small increase of both occupations through 2022. It is 1.1 thousand a year for librarians and 900 a year for library technicians.

Job openings make a better measure of new hiring than job growth. Job openings are job growth and the number of net replacements. Net replacements are people who permanently leave an occupation for another occupation or retirement and must be replaced before there can be job growth. Job openings for librarians are forecast to be 4,440 a year through 2022. Job openings for library technicians are forecast to be 6,630 a year through 2022.

The recently updated BLS Education and Training Classification assignments lists MA degree skills as necessary for entry into jobs as librarians and training in a post-secondary program for library technicians. Previous work experience and on-the-job training are not important factors in hiring. However, percentages from survey data are published for library and library technicians that show an educational distribution where 58.7 percent of librarians have a master’s degree, 36 percent have some college up to a BA degree and almost 5 percent have a doctorate in some related field. Library technicians show an educational distribution where 38.6 percent have a high school or less than high school education, 48.3 percent have some college up to a BA degree and only 11.3 percent have a master’s degree.

The National Center for Education Statistics reports degree data for America’s colleges and universities that can be compared with job growth and openings. New master’s degrees in library science for the year ending June 2011 were 7,441, which is up from 2010 when the total was 7,727. Because the master’s degree is the entry level degree only a hand full of BA degree programs in library science exist at America’s colleges and universities. There are virtually no BA degrees in library science. Computer science is a good undergraduate degree before entering a library science master’s program.

The ratio of relevant MA degrees to librarian openings equals 1.68, or 7,441/4,440, assuring more than enough qualified candidates to fill job openings. Openings minus entry degrees are 7,441 – 4,440 = 3,001 degrees over openings indicating some surplus of qualified applicants.

The basic wage data from the BLS occupational employment survey includes a wage distribution. Averages are not used much in wage data. A few high wages pull up the average and make it unrepresentative. Instead a distribution range of wages is published with the 10th, 25th, median, 75th, and 90th percentiles of wages. A 10th percentile wage means 10 percent working in this job have wages equal to or less than the 10th percentile wage and so on. Annual wages are converted to hourly wages by dividing annual wages by 2080.

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for librarians is reported as $33,380 in 2013. The 25th percentile wage equals $43,890. The median wage is $55,690, the 75th percentile wage equals $70,010 and the 90th percentile wage is $86,360.

The wages of Librarians have not kept up with inflation in recent years. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $49,060 in 2013, the librarian wage would need to be $56,690.80. In stead it was $55,690, a 1.77 percent decrease in the real wage for those seven years.

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for library technicians is reported as $18,820 in 2013. The 25th percentile wage equals $23,740. The median wage is $31,280, the 75th percentile wage equals $40,320 and the 90th percentile wage is $49,650.

The wages of library technicians have kept up with inflation in recent years. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $26 560, in 2013, the library technician wage would need to be $30.691.15. Instead it was $31,280, a 1.92 percent increase in the real wage for those seven years.

Jobs in Day Care Centers

A recent article in the Washington Post ["Math 101 for New Parents," WP, 1-10-14] reported the cost of a year of day care in many states exceeds a year of tuition at state colleges. The article cited Child Care Aware of America as a source of information. They publish annual expenses by state for child care centers and family care centers. Expenses are broken out for infant care, 4 year olds, and school age care for the two types of facilities.

While they do not report college tuitions the child care center expenses they report exceed $10,000 for 19 states; the average for the 50 states is $9,466.00. In Oregon, for example, the College Board gives in-state tuition at the University of Oregon as $9,767, compared to $13,452 reported as a year's expenses for infant child care. Expenses reported for 4 year olds and for school age children tend to be lower. In Oregon the expenses reported for 4 year olds dropped to $10,200 and to $5,028 for school age children. School age children need after school care rather than all day at least during the school year.

Licensed day care costs include rent, supplies, maintenance, toys-equipment, liability insurance, utilities but wages for staff make up the biggest share of a day care program budget. The Bureau of Labor Statistics confirms staffing information also reported on the Child Care Aware website. Both report that three occupations account for 76 to 80 percent of employment at child care centers: preschool teachers, teacher assistants and childcare workers.

Preschool teachers have the highest median wage of the three occupations at $27,570 in 2013, up from $22,680 in 2006. The increase of wages exceeds the rate of inflation by enough to raise buying power by 5 percent over the 8 year period. States do not require a BA degree or teacher certification for the lead teacher in a pre-school. Training hours in early childhood education or child development activities are required in 19 states, but 31 states allow a high school education or less than high school as training for a preschool teacher. The low entry requirement to work in day care makes it unnecessary to compete with the public schools for certified teachers and assures a large pool of labor to help keep wages low.

Teacher assistants have a median wage of $24,000 in 2013, up from $20,740 in 2006. To have the buying power of 2006 in 2013 the wage would need to be $23,965, which makes $24,000 a tiny increase in buying power for teacher assistants for the 8 year period.

Child care workers make up a little over 30 percent of staffing but they have the lowest wages of the three occupations with a median wage of $19,700. To have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $14,630 in 2013, the median wage would need to be $20,372. Instead it was $19,700 a 3.8 percent decline in buying power over the 8 years.

State licensing rules limit the number of children per staff, the child to staff ratio. For children in infant care some states allow 6 children per staff in; some states allow only 3 per staff. The ratio goes up for older children. For school age children the maximum for some states is 25 per staff; the low for others is 9.

With six to one staff 30 children in infant care need to have one lead teacher and four other staff ready to assist suggesting payroll expenses of $127,644 a year that allows for 20 percent extra to pay Social Security taxes, workman’s compensation and so on. [i.e. ($27,570 + 4 x $19,700)*1.2 = $127,644 ] A day care center with 30 children and the average charge of $9,644 can generate revenue $284,000, and over $400,000 with charges like Oregon. The difference of revenue and payroll suggests an adequate margin for expenses and maybe a little extra.

Some of the revenue paid to day care centers comes from the Child Care Development Block Grant program and Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF), the Clinton Administration replacement for welfare, but Child Care Aware of America reports 60 percent of revenues come directly from parents.

If a couple that both earn $45,000 salaries then social security and joint federal income taxes generates taxes of $19,338.75. Adding in the average day care expense of $9,644 brings the total to $28,982.75. If one stays home and the other continues at $45,000, taxes drop to $6,411.25 including a small child care tax credit of $250. When both work they are left with $61,017.25 when one works they are left with $38,588.75. Therefore $45,000 additional income from a second salary adds only $22,428.75 to net income and the difference of $45,000 - $22,428.75 equals the cost of working and paying for child care, which in this example is $22,571.50.

Child Care Aware of America tells website visitors they are the nation’s leading voice for child care. They also write “A major hidden funding source for child care subsidies are the teachers in child care centers and family child care homes. . . . In effect, the low wages of the early care and education workforce serve as a subsidy for parents.”

It’s nice they are honest, but those working do earn enough to be self supporting. High prices and low wages are getting to be an old story in American job markets.

Jobs with Animals

For those with an interest in animals who would like to pursue a career working with animals it is worth knowing the Standard Occupational Classification has ten occupations doing various things with, or for, animals. In 2012 there were 437.9 thousand jobs in these occupations.

The ten Standard Occupational Classifications with their 2012 employment, average annual change in employment since 2000.and SOC definition are below.

#19-1011 Animal Scientist– 2,120, 45/yr
Conduct research in the genetics, nutrition, reproduction, growth, and development of domestic farm animals. Also known as dairy scientist, poultry scientist. Animal scientists work for better, lower cost ways to produce meat, poultry, eggs and milk.

A few animal scientists work in private industry especially food processing, but most work at state universities and state funded agricultural experiment stations doing food related research. A doctorate in biology, chemistry or relevant engineering is necessary for independent research although a BA degree in an agricultural science field qualifies to assist in research.

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for animal scientist is reported as $34,550 in 2012. The 25th percentile wage equals $43,940. The median wage is $61,680, the 75th percentile wage equals $91,160, and the 90th percentile wage is $129,440.

The wages of animal scientists have kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $47,800 in 2012, the animal scientist wage would need to be $54,437.53. In stead it was $61,680, a 13.3 percent increase in the real wage for those six years.

#19-1023 Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists– 18,650, 578/yr
Study the origins, behavior, diseases, genetics, and life processes of animals and wildlife. May specialize in wildlife research and management, including the collection and analysis of biological data to determine the environmental effects of present and potential use of land and water areas. Also known by specialty as Ornithologist, Mammalogists, Herpetologist, Ichthyologists

Government employs nearly two thirds of zoologists and wildlife biologists. A few percent work in education as teachers and few more work in the private sector as consultants. A B.A. degree is a minimum requirement, but a PhD is necessary to lead independent research.

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists is reported as $37,100 in 2012. The 25th percentile wage equals $45,790. The median wage is $57,710, the 75th percentile wage equals $73,010, and the 90th percentile wage is $95,430.

The wages of Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists have not kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $53,300 in 2012, the Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists wage would need to be $60,701.15. Instead it was $57,710, a -4.93 percent increase in the real wage for those six years.

#29-1131 Veterinarian– 56,020, 1,313/yr
Diagnose and treat diseases and dysfunctions of animals. May engage in a particular function, such as research and development, consultation, administration, technical writing, sale or production of commercial products, or rendering of technical services to commercial firms or other organizations. Include veterinarians who inspect livestock. Also known as Animal Pathologist, Animal Surgeon, Veterinary Bacteriologist, Veterinary Inspector

A Veterinarian requires four years of college and then a veterinarian degree from one of Americans 29 vet schools, which are primarily at state universities. Almost all work in veterinary services either as a salaried employee or self employed. A small percent work teaching and a small percent in research.

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for Veterinarian is reported as $51,530 in 2012. The 25th percentile wage equals $67,040. The median wage is $84,460, the 75th percentile wage equals $108,640, and the 90th percentile wage is $144,100.

The wages of Veterinarian have kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $71,990 in 2012, the Veterinarian wage would need to be $81,986.41. In stead it was $84,460, a 3.02 percent increase in the real wage for those six years.

#29-2056 Veterinary Technologists and Technicians– 83,350, 2,748/yr
Perform medical tests in a laboratory environment for use in the treatment and diagnosis of diseases in animals. Prepare vaccines and serums for prevention of diseases. Prepare tissue samples, take blood samples, and execute laboratory tests, such as urinalysis and blood counts. Clean and sterilize instruments and materials and maintain equipment and machines. Also known as Animal Technician; Veterinary X-ray Operator

A Veterinary Technologist or Technician has the same types of duties in a veterinary practice that a registered nurse has in the health care field. To qualify an AA or BA degree in animal health technology or veterinary technician assistant is necessary. Virtually all of them work in veterinary services because they assist veterinarians.

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for Veterinary Technologists and Technicians is reported as $21,030 in 2012. The 25th percentile wage equals $25,150. The median wage is $30,290, the 75th percentile wage equals $36,580, and the 90th percentile wage is $44,030.

The wages of Veterinary Technologists and Technicians have not kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $26,780 in 2012, the Veterinary Technologists and Technicians wage would need to be $30,498.63. In stead it was $30,290, a -.68 percent increase in the real wage for those six years.

#31-9096 Veterinary Assistants & Laboratory Animal Caretakers– 71,500, 1,358/yr
Feed, water, and examine pets and other non-farm animals for signs of illness, disease, or injury in laboratories and animal hospitals and clinics. Clean and disinfect cages and work areas, and sterilize laboratory and surgical equipment. May provide routine post-operative care, administer medication orally or topically, or prepare samples for laboratory examination under the supervision of veterinary or laboratory animal technologists or technicians, veterinarians, or scientists.

Veterinary assistants work for veterinary technologists or veterinarians either in their vet practices or helping to care for animals that are part of veterinary research Training is usually on the job training.

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for Veterinary Assistants and Laboratory Animal Caretakers is reported as $17,150 in 2012. The 25th percentile wage equals $19,220. The median wage is $23,130, the 75th percentile wage equals $28,840, and the 90th percentile wage is $35,510.

The wages of Veterinary Assistants and Laboratory Animal Caretakers have kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $19,960 in 2012, the Veterinary Assistants and Laboratory Animal Caretakers wage would need to be $22,731.61. In stead it was $23,130, a 1.75 percent increase in the real wage for those six years.

#33-9011 Animal Control Workers – 13,890, 486/yr
Handle animals for the purpose of investigations of mistreatment, or control of abandoned, dangerous, or unattended animals. Also known as Animal Warden; Dog Catcher; Humane Officer

Almost 90 percent of Animal Control Workers work for a municipal government. The rest work for civic associations like humane societies. There are no educational requirements beyond high school. Training is mostly on the job training.

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for Animal Control Workers is reported as $19,730 in 2012. The 25th percentile wage equals $25,090. The median wage is $31,680, the 75th percentile wage equals $39,920, and the 90th percentile wage is $50,730.

The wages of Animal Control Workers have not kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $27,910 in 2012, the Animal Control Workers wage would need to be $31,785.54. In stead it was $31,680, a -.33 percent increase in the real wage for those six years.

#39-2011 Animal Trainers - 11,170, 398/yr
Train animals for riding, harness, security, performance, or obedience, or assisting persons with disabilities. Accustom animals to human voice and contact; condition animals to respond to commands. Train animals according to prescribed standards for show or competition. May train animals to carry pack loads or work as part of a pack team. Also known as Dog Trainer; Horse Breaker; Lion Trainer

More than half of animal trainers are self-employed and most train dogs or horses. Agriculture, forestry and hunting also employ another 25 to 30 percent. Nine to ten percent train animals as paid employees of pet services companies or retail pet stores. Zoos, nature parks, historical sites, spectator sports employ another 5 percent. A high school education is adequate as formal education and the rest is on the job training from someone more experienced.

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for Animal Trainers is reported as $17,580 in 2012. The 25th percentile wage equals $19,860. The median wage is $25,270, the 75th percentile wage equals $36,560, and the 90th percentile wage is $49,840.

The wages of Animal Trainers have not kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $26,310 in 2012, the Animal Trainers wage would need to be $29,963.37. In stead it was $25,270, a -15.66 percent increase in the real wage for those six years.

#39-2021 Non-farm Animal Caretakers -- 150,140, 5,275/yr
Feed, water, groom, bathe, exercise, or otherwise care for pets and other nonfarm animals, such as dogs, cats, ornamental fish or birds, zoo animals, and mice. Work in settings such as kennels, animal shelters, zoos, circuses, and aquariums. May keep records of feedings, treatments, and animals received or discharged. May clean, disinfect, and repair cages, pens, or fish tanks. Also known as Dog Walker, Dog Groomer, Kennel Worker; Stable Attendant

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for Non-farm Animal Caretakers is reported as $16,490 in 2012. The 25th percentile wage equals $17,790. The median wage is $19,690, the 75th percentile wage equals $24,590, and the 90th percentile wage is $32,500.

The wages of Non-farm Animal Caretakers have not kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $18,140 in 2012, the Non-farm Animal Caretakers wage would need to be $20,658.89. In stead it was $19,690, a -4.69 percent increase in the real wage for those six years.

#45-2021 Animal Breeders– 1,460, -18/yr
Breed animals such as cattle, goats, horses, sheep, swine, poultry, dogs, cats, or pet birds. Select and breed animals according to their genealogy, characteristics, and offspring. May require knowledge of artificial insemination techniques and equipment use. May involve keeping records on heats, birth intervals, or pedigree. Also known as Artificial Inseminator; Chicken Fancier; Horse Breeder

Animal breeders are mostly self employed but many do work as salaried employees in agriculture. Less than one percent work in other industries. A high school education and prior experience with animals is enough training in many situations but more animal breeders use the science of genetics and statistics to evaluate breeding rates for good growth, meat, milk and egg production rates.

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for Animal Breeders is reported as $18,110 in 2012. The 25th percentile wage equals $24,650. The median wage is $34,250, the 75th percentile wage equals $49,460, and the 90th percentile wage is $59,340.

The wages of Animal Breeders have kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $27,090 in 2012, the Animal Breeders wage would need to be $30,851.67. In stead it was $34,250, an 11.02 percent increase in the real wage for those six years.

#45-2093 Farm workers– 29,570, -558/yr
Attend to live farm, ranch, or aqua-cultural animals that may include cattle, sheep, swine, goats, horses and other equines, poultry, finfish, shellfish, and bees. Attend to animals produced for animal products, such as meat, fur, skins, feathers, eggs, milk, and honey. Duties may include feeding, watering, herding, grazing, castrating, branding, de-beaking, weighing, catching, and loading animals. May maintain records on animals; examine animals to detect diseases and injuries; assist in birth deliveries; and administer medications, vaccinations, or insecticides as appropriate. May clean and maintain animal housing areas. Include workers who shear wool from sheep, and collect eggs in hatcheries. Also known as Horse Groomer; Beekeeper; Livestock Feeder

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for Farm workers is reported as $16,690 in 2012. The 25th percentile wage equals $18,430. The median wage is $22,060, the 75th percentile wage equals $28,210, and the 90th percentile wage is $35,790.

The wages of farm workers have kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $19,060 in 2012, the Farm workers wage would need to be $21,706.64. In stead it was $22,060, a 1.63 percent increase in the real wage for those six years.

Summary

Non-farm animal care taker has 34 percent of the 437.9 thousand jobs in the ten occupations. It also has the most new jobs over the last decade, but unfortunately the lowest median wage, which has not kept up with inflation since 2006. Only three of the ten occupations have a median wage over $50,000 – animal scientist, zoologist and wildlife biologist, veterinarian – and three more have median wages in the $30,000’s -- Veterinary Technologists and Technicians, Animal Control Workers, Animal Breeders can be considered career employment. Three have median wages in the $20,000’s – Veterinary Assistants & Laboratory Animal Caretakers, animal trainer, farm worker. Non-farm Animal Caretakers – has a median salary below $19,690.

Dietitians-Nutritionists and Dietetic Technicians

Dietitians-Nutritionists and Dietetic Technicians

Standard Occupational Classification #29-1031 Dietitians and Nutritionists
Standard Occupational Classification #29-2051 Dietetic Technicians

SOC Definition Dietitians and Nutritionists #29-1031 -- Plan and conduct food service or nutritional programs to assist in the promotion of health and control of disease. May supervise activities of a department providing quantity food services, counsel individuals, or conduct nutritional research. Examples of other common names in use are public health dietitian; nutrition director; research dietitian.

SOC Definition Dietetic Technicians #29-2051 -- Assist dietitians in the provision of food service and nutritional programs. Under the supervision of dietitians, may plan and produce meals based on established guidelines, teach principles of food and nutrition, or counsel individuals.

Both dietitian-nutritionists and dietetic technicians are classified as health care occupations with the majority working in the health care industry. For dietitians and nutritionists 56 percent work in health care: 32 percent at public and private hospitals, 15 percent in ambulatory care and 9 percent at nursing care facilities. Another 14 percent work for government, 2.8 percent in social assistance services and 2.3 percent in education with very small numbers scattered in other industry sectors. About 15 are classified as self employed.

Dietetic technicians assist dietitians and nutritionists so none are self employed. Eighty percent work in health care: 3 percent in ambulatory care, 50 percent at public and private hospitals, and 27.8 percent at nursing care facilities. Another 11 percent work in government, 3 percent in education and 1.5 percent in social assistance with a few scattered in other sectors.

National employment as dietitians and nutritionists was 58,240 in 2012. Jobs are up from 43,030 since 2000 in a modest but steady increase. Annual average job growth equals 1,268 per year since 2000 at a growth rate of 2.55 percent, significantly higher than the average for all employment. National employment as dietetic technicians was 24,660 in 2012. Jobs are down since 2000 when jobs were 28,010. The annual average job decline equals -279 per year since 2000 at a growth rate of -1.06 percent.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics is forecasting job growth for dietitians and nutritionists at almost the same rate as the last 12 years at 1,270 per year through 2020. Because of anticipated turnover and retirements, openings, or growth plus replacement needs, are expected to be 3,540 a year. Forecast job growth for dietetic technicians is 390 a year through 2020 in spite of the record of decline. Anticipated turnover and retirements are expected to create 810 openings a year.

The recently updated BLS Education and Training Classification assignments lists BA degree skills as necessary for entry into jobs as dietitians and nutritionists. There are 46 states that now require a license or certification or registration through a state office or bureau for dietitians and nutritionists. The American Dietetic Association has a certification credential for those who pass their exam. Employers often prefer candidates with this credential, which is also accepted by state licensing authorities. All these credentials require a BA in dietetics or nutrition. Experience in a related occupation is not necessary, but candidates are generally expected to have an intern or residence program as on the job training to be qualified. Most BA programs include the internship period.

High school degree skills are adequate for dietetic technicians. Experience in a related occupation is not necessary, but qualified candidates need on-the-job experience of 1 to 12 months working with a certified dietitian to be considered fully qualified.

The National Center for Education Statistics reports degree data for America’s colleges and universities that can be compared with job growth and openings. There were 2,734 dietetics and clinical nutrition BA degrees granted in 4 programs in June 2011, the last year of complete degree data. There were also 3,908 BA degrees granted in 4 programs in foods, nutrition and related services and 1,694 BA degrees granted in nutrition sciences offered as part of programs in multi-disciplinary science. The total of BA degrees with relevant preparation to be dietitians and nutritionists comes to 8,336. Master’s degrees in programs with the same titles had 1,928 master’s degrees. Degrees are up in 2011 from previous years. The ratio of relevant BA degree to openings equals 2.35, or 8,336/3,540, assuring more than enough qualified candidates to fill job openings.

The basic wage data from the BLS occupational employment survey includes a wage distribution. Averages are not used much in wage data. A few high wages pull up the average and make it unrepresentative. Instead a distribution range of wages is published with the 10th, 25th, median, 75th, and 90th percentiles of wages. A 10th percentile wage means 10 percent working in this job have wages equal to or less than the 10th percentile wage and so on. Annual wages are converted to hourly wages by dividing annual wages by 2080

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for dietitians and nutritionists is reported as $34,500 in 2012. The 25th percentile wage equals $44,190. The median wage is $55,240, the 75th percentile wage equals $67,540 and the 90th percentile wage is $77,590.

The wages of dietitians and nutritionists have kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $46,980 in 2012, the dietitian and nutritionist wage would need to be $53,507.57. In stead it was $55,240, a 3.25 percent increase in the real wage for those six years. Other years also show an increase in real wages.

The entry wage for the national market in the 10th percentile for dietetic technicians is reported as $18,070 in 2012. The 25th percentile wage equals $21,000. The median wage is $26,260, the 75th percentile wage equals $34,350 and the 90th percentile wage is $43,460.
The wages of dietetic technicians have not kept up with inflation for the last decade. For example, to have the buying power of the 2006 median wage of $24 040, in 2012, the dietitian and nutritionist wage would need to be $27.378.16. Instead it was $26,260, a 4.08 percent decrease in the real wage for those six years. Other years also show decreasing real wages.

The contrasting performance of wages and employment of the two occupations suggests the licensing requirement has pressured employers to hire certified dietitians over those not certified because dietitians cannot make effective use of a full time assistant very often. Where there is work to share it will be assigned to the much cheaper dietetic technician in order to limit the work and employment of the more expensive dietitian or nutritionist. Notice the high percentage of dietetic technicians that work in hospitals where there is more work to share. In other industries and settings employers with more limited nutrition needs are saving money eliminating dietetic technicians to have their dietitian do all the needed work in nutrition.

The Need for Job Experience

Many job seekers know the phrase “We’re looking for someone with more experience.” It might be true but there are reasons to be suspicious it’s an easy way to end an interview: an excuse.

A few years ago the Bureau of Labor Statistics expanded their classification of occupational education and training to include job experience in related occupations and on-the-job training, or on the job experience, in addition to their review of necessary high school or college degree skills. When job applicants learn they need experience they usually think of experience working in the same occupation rather than experience in another related occupation, but the Bureau of Labor Statistics defines experience in both.

Experience in a Related Occupation

In the new expanded classification survey employers rate the experience in a related occupation to be 1) more than 5 years, 2) 1 to 5 years, 3) less than a year, 4) none. Almost all managerial positions require experience in the related occupations they will manage. For example, financial managers need more than five years experience in finance. Advertising managers need 1 to 5 years experience in advertising. It follows that finance or advertising managers need experience in finance or advertising before they are ready to manage others. There are 6.3 million management jobs in 2012 and ninety-five percent of them require experience in their related occupations.

First line supervisors are an additional layer of management and job applicants are also expected to have prior experience doing the jobs they supervise. First line supervisors had just over 6 million jobs in 2012 including first line supervisors of office and administrative support workers with 1.3 million jobs and first line supervisors of retail workers with another 1.2 million jobs.

Excluding management and supervisory occupations some other occupations where employers want related experience include judges with experience as lawyers, management analysts with experience as managers, information security analysts, web developers and database administrators need experience in computer work, instructional coordinators need teaching experience, and fire and building inspectors need work in the field.

Including management and supervisory occupations 82 of 839 occupations with data reported by the Bureau of Labor Statistics need experience in related occupations, which is just 15 percent of America’s 130 million jobs in 2012.

Job Experience in the Same Occupation

Job applicants should differentiate demands for experience in a related occupation from the demand for experience in the same occupation. Job experience in an occupation that adds to qualifications is defined in 5 categories of on-the-job training or essential on the job experience: 1) internships, 2) apprenticeship programs and 3) long, 4) medium and 5) short term on-the-job training programs.

After allowing for jobs that need experience in a related occupation, there were 110.9 million jobs left in 2012, but only 86.5 million of them needed some type of on-the-job training or experience to be fully qualified. Of those 86.5 million left to consider 52.2 million need a bit of informal on the job training of a month or less. Remaining jobs include 29.1 million jobs with a formal apprenticeship program, or employer sponsored long term training programs of a year or more or medium term training of one to twelve months. Finally, 5.2 million of the jobs of 2012 need a period of internship or residency to be qualified.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics on-the-job classifications shows the need for experience depends primarily on the level of formal education applicants bring to a job. In 2012 there were 399 occupations in the Standard Occupational Classification that required only high school or less than high school skills; 99 percent of the jobs in all but 3 of the occupations need previous experience for employers to be satisfied they are qualified.

These jobs are primarily in construction and production occupations along with selected office support, installation-maintenance-repair and transportation occupations. Some like carpenter, electrician, plumber, and machinist have apprenticeship or long term training needs; many machine setters, operators and tenders and assembly occupations in manufacturing require medium term on-the-job training. Customer service representative, office clerk and secretarial occupations require some on the job training or experience.
Without experience employers have a choice to pay more for qualified applicants or to incur the time and expense for on the job training to make someone fully qualified. Training expenses tend to be covered with lower entry wages.

As applicants apply for jobs that need more formal education the need for job experience goes down. There are 90 occupations that need one or two year post secondary awards or associates degrees, the Bureau of Labor Statistics reports 14.9 percent of these jobs in 35 of the 90 occupations need previous experience for employers to be satisfied they are qualified. Among the 35 occupations 18 have repairer, or installer, or both in their job title: electrical and electronic repairers, precision instrument repairers and so on. Another 8 have technician in their job title: audio and video equipment technicians, environmental science technicians and so on. Include firefighter, auto insurance adjuster, and desktop publishing.

There are 128 occupations that need BA degree training, only 11 percent of these jobs in 21 occupations need some long, medium or short term on the job training and experience. Actuaries, writers and editors, and interpreters and translators need long term experience after a BA degree. Employers usually expect financial examiners, credit counselors, insurance underwriters, and tax examiners to have, or to need, some on the job experience or training. Include public relations specialists from multi media and communications occupations and several specialized sales occupations that need some medium term on the job training.

The BA degree has 17 other occupations confined to architecture, public school teaching, and nursing specialties such as nurse practitioner that have required internships not included in the 21 occupations mentioned above. Internships draw a fine distinction between on-the-job training and education. For example, public school teachers typically do an internship as student teachers while they are still tuition paying students. Physicians do internships as paid interns and residents after they have finished medical school degrees.

Job applicants should be suspicious of anything called an internship unless it is required for an accredited degree or licensure. On some occasions internships have turned into a scheme to lure college students or recent college graduates into working for free, or for a minimal stipend. Abuses have occurred often enough that the Department of Labor has written rules to distinguish internships from what should be paid employment.

Unpaid interns should not be doing the recurring work of a business that would have to be done by a paid employee. It should be for a declared time period, but without fixed hours or the promise of a job, and only if there is a training benefit useful to all employers. Internships are not trial employment because employers are legally required to pay at least the minimum wage for employment.

Recent college graduates should be careful before accepting anything called an internship. Some companies have entry level paying jobs called internships because they end after a year without continuing employment, but normally internships are education not employment. Those with BA degree have skills for a job; internships mean delay and a dubious promise for the future.

Required internships in the Bureau of Labor Statistics listings apply only for those with BA or higher degrees and few apply outside of medicine and public school teaching. The 26 occupations that need MS degree skills do not have on the job training programs, only 12.4 percent of these jobs in 4 occupations need internships: all therapy and counseling occupations. There are no occupations that need PhD skills that require internships, or that have on the job training programs. Degrees generally substitute for experience.

Departing Words

The Bureau of Labor Statistics review of training and experience clearly establishes that experience is not as important as many employers say and many job applicants think. When the job add reads applicants should have at least 5 years experience, do not be intimidated. Know where experience counts and forge ahead to negotiate with the skills and experience you have. Doing the same job over and over for years does not necessarily add much to skills, if any. For occupations where experience really adds to qualifications the need for experience limits the pool of applicants and forces employers to pay higher salaries. Those who have the skills and confidence without the experience still have room to negotiate over wages and move to the front of the line. Remember employers want qualified applicants and skills count the most.